Shepherd of Hermas

            The Shepherd of Hermas is another fascinating early church document. It was written from Rome and is formally divided into three main sections: five visions, twelve mandates, and ten parables (or similitudes). But underneath the formal structure the book is divided into two main sections: the first four visions and the rest of the book, as the fifth vision is an introduction to the rest of the book. This leads many to suppose that the book is a composite, a theory which has textual support. Iranaeus refers to it about AD 175, so it must be written before that. The Muratorian Canon says that Hermas was the brother of Pius, bishop of Rome from AD 140-154. But the reference to Clement at Rome suggests a date around AD 100. Perhaps the first four visions (with the reference to Clement) are from AD 100, and the rest of the book was written later by Hermas.

            The main topic of the book is the question of the forgiveness of post-baptismal sin. The answer given is that it can be forgiven, but only once, and there is a time limit, so the sinner needs to not wait too long. This theological stand resulted in criticism from both sides: "Forgiveness after baptism?!" or "Only one sin forgiven after baptism?!" The book employs an apocalyptic style, with the main difference being the topic. Instead of the end of the world, the topic is the forgiveness of post-baptismal sin. But there are many visions, allegories, messengers, and interpretations of visions. Christ plays only a small role in the book, as the name Jesus is not used at all and the title Christ is used only three times.

The Shepherd is treated as Scripture in the second century by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Tertullian (until he became a Montanist). In the fourth century, Athanasius quotes it as Scripture, as also a tractate called Against Dice Players does (Metzger Canon 164). Didymus the Blind accepts it as part of his canon and it is included in Codex Sinaiticus. It is included in the canon list of Codex Claromontanus (along with the Epistle of Barnabas, Acts of Paul and Revelation of Peter), but there is a line in front of it, apparently indicating it was not canonical (Bruce 218-219). On an interesting side note, a book on the New Testament Apocrypha also gives this list but does not show the lines or mention them in any form, leaving the reader to believe that the codex does not differentiate between these apocryphal books and the rest of the canon (Hennecke Volume 1 45-46). The Greek text and an English translation is found in Holmes (334-527), an English translation and commentary in Osiek (41-262) and an introduction is found in both sources (Holmes 328-333; Osiek 1-38).

Wisdom of Solomon

            The Wisdom of Solomon is part of the OT Apocrypha, so it is odd at first to see it listed as almost making the NT. But the date of the book is usually given as about 100 BC, which makes the book closer to NT times than to the OT. Due to extensive reference to Egypt and an Egyptian context, the book seems to be have been written in Egypt. The author of the book is said to be Solomon, a perspective from which the author writes, but the date of the book is much too late for that possibility.

            The book is viewed as canonical by the Muratorian Canon. "But the letter of Jude and the two superscribed with the name of John are accepted in the catholic [church]; Wisdom also, written by Solomon's friends in his honour. The apocalypse of John we also receive, and that of Peter, which some of our people will not have to be read in the church" (Bruce 161).  While others quoted the book, this is the only place where the book is viewed as Scripture.

            The book is in the broad genre of wisdom. The book appears to have been written to faithful Jews to continue to be faithful to Judaism in contrast to the surrounding Hellenism. The author focuses a great deal upon wisdom, personifying her and making her almost deity, although he stops short of calling her God. "For she [wisdom] is the breath of the power of God, and a pure emanation of his almighty glory, therefore nothing defiled can enter into her. For she is a reflection of the everlasting light, and a spotless mirror of the activity of God, and a likeness of his goodness" (7:25-26). The author recounts large parts of Israel's history and some scholars see the influence of the book on the writings of Paul. There is a strong critique of Gentile society in the book, especially Gentile religion. The author sees a strong connection between idolatry and sexual vice, including homosexuality (de Young 442-443).

            An English translation is found in Goodspeed (179-219). Introductions are found in deSilva (127-152) and Metzger (Introduction 65-76). A critique of a prohomosexual reading of the Wisdom of Solomon is given by de Young (442-446).

Epistle of Barnabas

            The Epistle of Barnabas is an early attempt to describe the relationship between the church and Israel. The author uses a very allegorical hermeneutic to show that the Christians are the true heirs of the Mosaic Law, not the Jews. The Jews have been rejected because they have rejected the covenant. The Jews have mistakenly understood it literally, while the correct way is the spiritual interpretation. Unifying the whole letter is a strong ethical concern and exhortation to the people to be holy. The following examples are typical of the author's hermeneutic.

Learn abundantly, therefore, children of love, about everything: Abraham, who first instituted circumcision, looked forward in the spirit to Jesus when he circumcised, having received the teaching of the three letters. For it says: 'And Abraham circumcised ten and eight and three hundred men of his household.' What then, is the knowledge that was given to him? Observe that it mentions the 'ten and eight' first, and then after an interval the 'three hundred.' As for the 'ten and eight,' the I [the letters were used for numbers, so I = 10, H = 8 and T = 300] is ten and the H is eight; thus you have 'Jesus' [Jesus in Greek starts with IH].  And because the cross, which is shaped like the T, was destined to convey grace, it mentions also the 'three hundred.' So he reveals Jesus in the two letters and the cross in the other one (9:7-8).

Again, 'Neither shall you eat the hyena.' Do not become, he means, an adulterer or a seducer, or even resemble such people. Why? Because this animal changes its nature from year to year, and becomes male one time and female another. But he also hated the weasel, and with good reason. Do not become, he means, like those men who, we hear, with immoral intent do things with the mouth that are forbidden, nor associate with those immoral women who do things with the mouth that are forbidden. For this animal conceives through its mouth (10:7-8).

            The author of the Epistle of Barnabas is not known, although some have claimed that it is the Barnabas from Acts. The place of origin seems to be Alexandria based on the similarities between it and the Alexandrian hermeneutic and the early attestation of the epistle in Alexandria. The date would seem to be between the destruction of the temple in 70 and the rebuilding of the city in 132. Specifics beyond this are speculative.

            Codex Claromontaus mentions this book in its canon list, but marks it off as different by means of a line in front of it. Clement of Alexandria comments on this book in his section on the catholic epistles (Bruce 190), although Clement also criticizes an interpretation of the Epistle of Barnabas (Metzger Canon 134). Origen quotes the Letter of Barnabas as Scripture (Bruce 194). Codex Sinaiticus includes it after the Revelation of John.

            The Greek text and an English translation is in Holmes (274-327) along with an introduction (270-273).

Revelation of Peter

The Revelation of Peter is an apocalyptic book that had an easily seen influence on Dante's Inferno.  The author is unknown, although it claims to be from the perspective of Peter. The date seems to be between 100 and 200 AD, due to mention of the book by Clement of Alexandria and the use of 2 Peter in the book. Instead of the focus upon Christ as found in Revelation, the book contains extensive and graphic descriptions of life in heaven and hell, with a focus upon the latter. The book claims to be sayings and visions given by Christ on the Mount of Olives, although the Transfiguration plays a role in the book as well.

And some there were there hanging by their tongues: these were those who had blasphemed he way of righteousness; and under them was laid fire, blazing and tormenting them. And there was a great lake full of burning mire in which were fixed certain men who had turned away from righteousness, and tormenting angels were placed over them. And there were also others there: women hanging by their hair over that boiling mire. These were they who had adorned themselves for adultery. But those (men) who had united with them for the adulterous defilement <were hanging> by their feet <and> had their heads in the mire, and with <loud voice> cried out, 'We did not believe that we would come to this place' (22-25 in the Akhmim text). 

The Muratorian Fragment includes the Revelation of Peter among the canonical books, but notes that "some of our people will not have [it] to be read in church" (Bruce 161). Clement of Alexandria includes the book as an inspired catholic epistle (Bruce 190). The book was read in some Palestinian churches in the fifth century (Bruce 261). Codex Claromontaus mentions this book in its canon list, but marks it off as different by means of a line in front of it (Bruce 218-219). An English text is in Hennecke (Volume 2 668-683) and in introduction is in Hennecke (Volume 2 663-668) and Metzger (Canon 184-186).

Acts of Paul

The Acts of Paul is one of a number of apocryphal acts that appeared from the second century onwards. Tertullian records that the book was written between 150-200 by a presbyter in Asia Minor who was trying to honor Paul. But as a reward for this attempt he was removed from his office. The text is incomplete and imperfect, which causes problems in interpreting the book.

The Acts of Paul gives a letter of Paul (3 Corinthians) and describes supposed travels and stories of Paul not recorded in the NT. One fascinating story is of a convert named Thecla, a story which also circulated independently. She gets condemned to death twice, but each time a plethora of miracles prevent her death. The second time she baptizes herself by jumping into a pool of water, at which point the seals in the pool die as if they were struck by lightning (3). This self-baptism and the record of her later extensive teaching scandalized Tertullian. Another interesting passage gives the story of Paul at Ephesus fighting the wild beasts. When the lions are let out, one stands out by its immense roar. But the lion and Paul look at each other and Paul recognizes the lion as one he had baptized some time before. When the lion refuses to kill Paul, other beasts are let loose, but a huge hail storm kills them and Paul walks down to the harbor in the ensuing confusion and sails away (7). The third interesting passage is the martyrdom of Paul where he is beheaded and milk sprays onto the clothes of the soldiers, causing them to glorify God (11).

Hippolytus bases the truth of Daniel upon the truth of the Acts of Paul. Origen quotes from the Acts of Paul, but recognizes it as disputed. Codex Claromontaus mentions this book in its canon list, but marks it off as different by means of a line in front of it.